Appendix

Records of the Western Turkic Khans

Nishou led his army back to the Western Turkic region. To quickly stabilize the situation, he appointed Ashina Tieli as Khan, known as Khan Siyehu. Immediately, Nishou engaged in a full-scale war against Mohedu, with both sides locked in fierce battles across the vast grasslands.

In 630 AD, Mohedu suffered defeat and fled to the Altai Mountains, where he was ultimately killed by Nishou. Following this victory, Nishou’s prestige soared. Khan Siyehu, eager to establish his authority, launched a northern campaign against the Tiele but was defeated by Xue Yantuo. Khan Siyehu was suspicious and cruel, executing loyal ministers indiscriminately. Eventually, he turned against Nishou, forcing Nishou to flee to Yanqi.

In 632 AD, Khan Siyehu’s brutality incited a unified rebellion from the Nushi Bi tribe. Unable to resist, he fled to Kangju, where he soon died. The Nushi Bi tribe then welcomed Nishou as the Great Khan, naming him Duolu Khan. After his ascension, Nishou sent envoys to Chang’an, expressing his willingness to submit to the Tang Dynasty. Li Shimin conferred upon Nishou the title of “Tuna Lou Ba Li Duolu Khan,” making him the first Western Turkic Khan officially recognized by the Tang Dynasty, marking the beginning of Tang influence in the Western Regions.

Nishou passed away in 634 AD.

Records of the Two Kings of Gaochang

Qu Zhisheng witnessed the death of Ashu during his journey to the West, which led him to understand his responsibilities in this life. He returned to Gaochang, where Qu Wentai appointed him as the heir apparent. Qu Zhisheng began to govern the state and manage Gaochang.

Throughout his life, Qu Zhisheng never forgot Long Shuangyue Zhi. After becoming the heir, he searched extensively across the Western Regions but found no news of her. In 630 AD, King Shi Wannian of Yiwuguo voluntarily submitted to the Tang Dynasty, bringing great joy to Li Shimin, who established Yiwuguan. This development alarmed Qu Wentai. At Qu Zhisheng’s suggestion, the father and son visited Chang’an, where they received a grand welcome from Li Shimin. The following year, Qu Wentai returned to his country, while Qu Zhisheng remained in the Tang, continuing his search for his lifelong belief, Long Shuangyue Zhi.

Qu Wentai was astonished by the growing power of the Tang Dynasty in Chang’an. He realized that the Tang would inevitably seek to dominate the Western Regions, leading him to feign allegiance while secretly maintaining independence. In 638 AD, conflicts arose between Qu Wentai and Long Tuqi Zhi. He launched an attack on Yanqi, capturing five cities. He even allied with the Western Turks to assault Yiwuguan, attempting to block the Qikou Pass and sever the connection between the Central Plains and the Western Regions.

Li Shimin was furious and issued an edict summoning him to court, but Qu Wentai refused, sending only officials to apologize to the emperor. Li Shimin compromised, ordering Qu Wentai to return the Han people who had fled to Gaochang after the Eastern Turks were defeated. Qu Wentai declined, stating, “Eagles soar in the sky, pheasants hide in the weeds, cats roam the halls, and mice gnaw in their holes; each finds their place, how can they not survive?”

Upon hearing this, Qu Zhisheng hurried back to Gaochang, but by then, the situation had become irreparable. Li Shimin’s ambition to annex the Western Regions became increasingly clear, while Qu Wentai’s desire for independence grew stronger.

Ultimately, Li Shimin dispatched Marquis Hou Junji to lead an army against Gaochang. Qu Wentai vowed to resist to the death, determined to defend Gaochang’s independence. However, Mohe Yanqi could not halt the advance of the Tang forces. In the autumn of 640 AD, Hou Junji’s army crossed the desert and reached the borders of Gaochang. Exhausted and filled with dread, Qu Wentai died.

Before his death, Qu Wentai told Qu Zhisheng, “My son, I returned to Gaochang to spare you the humiliation of losing our country.”

Qu Zhisheng ascended to the throne as the King of Gaochang, becoming the ninth and tenth ruler of the Qu family. After completing Qu Wentai’s funeral, Qu Zhisheng surrendered to Hou Junji, leading to the fall of Gaochang.

Upon arriving in Chang’an, Li Shimin appointed Qu Zhisheng as the General of the Left Guard and Duke of Jincheng. Qu Zhisheng declined, expressing a desire to retire to Jiangnan and live as an ordinary citizen. Consequently, Li Shimin built him a residence in Guangling, and Qu Zhisheng settled in Jiangnan. He believed that Long Shuangyue Zhi would remember their shared dreams and come to visit him in Jiangnan.

Many years later, one day, while strolling by the Grand Canal, Qu Zhisheng glanced at the water and saw a white-clad woman standing gracefully on a small boat. Tears streamed down his face as he covered it and wept loudly.

Records of the King of Yanqi

After losing the support of Long Shuangyue Zhi, Long Tuqi Zhi maintained a friendship with the Tang Dynasty, but his state affairs grew increasingly chaotic. He became irritable and frequently clashed with Qu Wentai, suffering losses in both men and territory.

In 640 AD, following the fall of Gaochang, Long Tuqi Zhi initially felt elated. However, incited by the Western Turks, he soon recognized the formidable nature of the Tang Dynasty. To secure Western Turkic support, he married his second daughter to the Western Turkic general Ashina Quli. This marked a complete shift in Yanqi’s policies toward the Western Turks. In the 18th year of the Zhenguan era, 644 AD, Long Tuqi Zhi’s brother Long Lipozhun surrendered to the Tang Dynasty. Li Shimin ordered Guo Xiaoke to launch a surprise attack on Yanqi. Under Long Lipozhun’s guidance, Guo Xiaoke crossed the waters surrounding the Yanqi royal city and captured it by the next morning, taking Long Tuqi Zhi prisoner.

In the 23rd year of the Zhenguan era, 649 AD, after Li Shimin’s death, Long Tuqi Zhi was turned into a stone statue, standing alongside Qu Zhisheng’s statue near the tomb of Emperor Taizong of Tang. In the second year of the Yonghui era, 651 AD, Long Tuqi Zhi’s brother Long Xian Nazhun died. Emperor Gaozong of Tang released Long Tuqi Zhi, allowing him to reclaim the throne as the King of Yanqi.

Records of the Kings of Persia

In 590 AD, the reigning Persian Emperor Hormizd IV committed an extremely foolish act. The renowned Persian general Bahram Chubin was at the front lines confronting the Byzantines. After suffering minor defeats, Hormizd IV sent envoys to the military camp to strip him of his command, mocking him by gifting him women’s clothing and a spinning wheel, suggesting he was only fit for women’s work.

Furious, Chubin rebelled on the battlefield and attacked Ctesiphon. Amidst internal and external turmoil, Hormizd IV’s son Khosrow II seized the opportunity to assassinate his father, gouging out his eyes and imprisoning him, before cruelly executing him. After ascending the throne, Khosrow II could not withstand Chubin’s forces and fled Ctesiphon, seeking refuge with the Byzantines.

Byzantine Emperor Maurice took Khosrow II in as an adopted son and dispatched an army to help him reclaim his throne. In 591 AD, Chubin was defeated and fled Ctesiphon, seeking refuge with the Western Turks. Khosrow II bribed the favorite concubine of the Turkic Khan, leading to Chubin’s assassination. Subsequently, Khosrow II spent ten years stabilizing Persia and restoring its power.

In 602 AD, a low-ranking Byzantine officer named Phocas killed Maurice and usurped the throne. Khosrow II, under the pretext of avenging his adoptive father, launched an attack on Byzantium. The Persian army advanced rapidly, causing the Byzantine Empire to crumble. In 610 AD, Phocas’s son-in-law Crispus suggested summoning the governor of Carthage, Heraclius, to aid the emperor. Phocas agreed, but upon Heraclius’s arrival in Constantinople, he staged a coup, beheading Phocas and declaring himself emperor.

After becoming emperor, Heraclius proposed peace with Persia. Khosrow II refused and continued his advance, capturing Damascus in 613 AD and plundering Antioch. In 614 AD, he seized the holy city of Jerusalem, committing widespread slaughter and pillage, even taking the true cross, the Christian relic believed to be the cross on which Jesus was crucified.

By 615 AD, the Persian army reached the Bosporus Strait, and by 619 AD, they conquered Egypt. At this point, the Sasanian Empire reached unprecedented heights. However, in 620 AD, Heraclius, having built up his forces over ten years, defeated the Persian navy and army, beginning a counteroffensive. Meanwhile, the Western Turkic Khan also allied with Heraclius, leading an army into Persia. In 627 AD, Heraclius invaded Persian territory, advancing rapidly and reaching Ctesiphon.

In 628 AD, Khosrow II’s eldest son, Khosrow IV, staged a coup, deposing Khosrow II and secretly executing him. Khosrow IV ascended the throne, known as Kavadh II. He sought peace with Byzantium, agreeing to pay reparations and cede territory, prompting Heraclius to withdraw his forces.

After the Byzantine withdrawal, Kavadh II initiated a massacre of the royal family, nearly exterminating all princes and princesses. However, he ruled for only six months before succumbing to a severe illness. The powerful noble Shah Behram supported Kavadh II’s seven-year-old son, who became emperor, known as Adashir III, but was soon deposed.

Shah Behram enjoyed a brief period of glory before Khosrow II’s daughter, Princess Boran, orchestrated his execution and ascended as queen, only to be deposed shortly thereafter. In the three years following Khosrow II’s death, nine short-lived emperors, including Piruz, Hormizd V, and Hormizd VI, rose and fell, plunging Persia into chaos until the twenty-one-year-old Yazdgird III took the throne, bringing some stability.

However, this was merely a flicker of the Sasanian Empire’s glory, as its most formidable enemy, the Arabs, rose from the desert.

In 636 AD, the Arab army decisively defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Qadisiyyah. The following year, they invaded Ctesiphon, forcing Yazdgird III to flee. Under his leadership, the Sasanian Empire fiercely resisted for another fifteen years.

In 647 AD, Yazdgird III wrote to the Tang Dynasty seeking assistance. Li Shimin refused to send troops, replying, “It is only natural for a ruler to seek help. However, I have learned from your envoy about the Arabs—their customs, beliefs, and the character of their leaders are all quite detailed. With such loyalty from the people and such talent among the leaders, how can they be defeated? You should diligently cultivate virtue and conduct yourself well to win their favor.”

In 651 AD, Yazdgird III was killed in a mill in Mulu City, marking the end of the Sasanian Empire. His son, Piruz, fled west to Tokharistan, seeking aid from the Tang Dynasty, which was then under the rule of Emperor Gaozong, who also refused military assistance. Piruz engaged in a protracted struggle against the Arabs with the help of the Tokharistan people. In 661 AD, after suffering defeat, Piruz once again sought aid from the Tang Dynasty. Emperor Gaozong established the Persian Governorate and conferred the title of King of Persia upon Piruz. However, as the Arab forces continued their relentless assaults, Piruz could not hold out. In 675 AD, he escaped to Chang’an via the Silk Road, where Emperor Gaozong appointed him as General of the Right Guard.

Piruz passed away in Chang’an in 677 AD. The last remnants of the Sasanian Empire’s glory finally faded into the dust of the Tang Dynasty.

Records of General Zhang Xiong of Gaochang

Zhang Xiong (583–633), courtesy name Taihuan, was originally from Nanyang, Henan, but had long resided in Gaochang. His grandfather, Zhang Wu, served as the General of the Left Guard and Minister of Civil Affairs. His father, Zhang Duan, held the position of General of Suggestions and Minister of Civil Affairs. His aunt was the consort of King Qu Boya of Gaochang, making King Qu Wentai Zhang Xiong’s cousin.

The epitaph unearthed from Zhang Xiong’s tomb in Gaochang describes him as “filial and friendly, endowed with intelligence, not arrogant due to his status, nor proud because of his talents. He was knowledgeable about military affairs and possessed a sharp mind,” indicating he was a talented individual in both civil and military matters.

Zhang Xiong understood the greater good and had political foresight. He repeatedly advised Qu Wentai against allying with the Western Turks, arguing that submitting to the Tang Dynasty was the foundation for establishing the state. However, his counsel was ignored, and he lost the trust of Qu Wentai. The records state that “his advice was disregarded, and he fell ill from worry,” leading to his untimely death at the age of fifty.

In 1973, a joint tomb of Zhang Xiong and his wife was discovered in Astana No. 206 in Turpan. Zhang Xiong’s body was remarkably preserved, becoming a mummified corpse. He was tall, over six feet, and his legs had become deformed from years of horseback riding.

Records of Wang Xuance

Wang Xuance, a native of Luoyang, Henan, served as the magistrate of Huangshui County in Rongzhou and as the chief historian of the Right Guard. Between the 17th year of the Zhenguan era and the first year of the Longshuo era (643–661 AD), he made three diplomatic missions to India. His deeds are recorded in both the Old and New Books of Tang, though his birth and death dates remain unclear. He was likely over ten years younger than Xuanzang, so the Tang envoy Xuanzang encountered at the Western Turkic court in the fourth year of Zhenguan could not have been Wang Xuance; the identity of that envoy remains unknown.

The following is recorded in the Old Book of Tang:

“In the tenth year of Zhenguan, the monk Xuanzang arrived in his country, bringing back over six hundred volumes of Sanskrit scriptures. Before this, Wang Xuance, the chief historian of the Right Guard, had been sent to India. The king of India, Shiloyita, sent envoys to pay tribute. At that time, King Shiloyita died, causing chaos in the country. His minister, Nafu Di Alosuna, usurped the throne and mobilized the Hu soldiers to resist Xuance. Xuance, with thirty cavalrymen, fought against the Hu but was outmatched and captured after exhausting his arrows.

The Hu plundered the tributes from various countries. Xuance then made a daring escape under the cover of night, reaching Tibet, where he gathered a force of 1,200 elite troops and over 7,000 cavalry from the Niboluo Kingdom to assist him. Xuance and the deputy envoy Jiang Shirun led the troops from both countries to the central Indian city, engaging in battle for three days, achieving a great victory, killing over 3,000 enemies, and drowning nearly 10,000. Alosuna abandoned the city and fled. They captured 12,000 men and women and over 30,000 cattle and horses.

Thus, India was struck with fear, and Alosuna was captured and returned. In the 22nd year, he arrived at the capital, where Emperor Taizong was greatly pleased. He ordered the officials to announce it to the ancestral temple and told the ministers, ‘People’s ears and eyes are captivated by sounds and sights; their mouths and noses are indulged in foul smells. This is the source of moral decay. If the Brahmins do not plunder my envoys, how could they be captured? In the past, Zhongshan was destroyed by greed for treasures, and the Marquis of Shu was annihilated by golden cattle; all were due to this.’ He conferred upon Xuance the title of Court Gentleman of the Morning Assembly.”